ABB – ABB invests ~$75 million in India to expand manufacturing and R&D for critical segments

EMR Analysis

More information on ABB: See full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Peter Voser (Chairman of the Board of Directors, ABB Ltd + Chairman of the Governance and Nomination Committee, ABB Ltd): See full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Morten Wierod (Chief Executive Officer and Member of the Group Executive Committee, ABB): See full profile on EMR Executive Services 

More information on Christian Nilsson (Chief Financial Officer and Member of the Executive Committee, ABB): See full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on the ABB Way: See full profile on EMR Executive Services

 

More information on Electrification Business Area by ABB: See the full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Giampiero Frisio (President, Electrification Business Area and Member of the Executive Committee, ABB): See full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Motion Business Area by ABB: See the full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Brandon Spencer (President, Motion Business Area and Member of the Executive Committee, ABB): See full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Process Automation Business Area by ABB: See the full profile on EMR Executive Services

More information on Peter Terwiesch (President, Process Automation Business Area and Member of the Executive Committee, ABB): See full profile on EMR Executive Services

 

More information on Sanjeev Sharma (Country Managing Director, ABB India, ABB): See full profile on EMR Executive Services 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EMR Additional Notes:

• Switchgears:
  • Broad term that describes a wide variety of switching devices that all fulfill a common need: controlling, protecting, and isolating power systems. This definition can be extended to include devices to regulate and meter a power system, circuit breakers, and similar technology.
  • Switchgear contains fuses, switches, and other power conductors. However, circuit breakers are the most common component found in switchgear.
  • It performs the function of controlling and metering the flow of electrical power in addiction to acting as an interrupting and switching device that protects the equipment from damage arising out of electrical fluctuations.
  • There are three types of switchgear, namely LV (Low voltage), MV (Medium voltage) and HV (High voltage) Switchgear.
• Fuses:
  • A fuse is a single time mechanical circuit interruption in an over-current situation through the fusion of a graded electrical conductor. It is employed in the 30KV to 100KV range.
  • It is an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows through it, thereby stopping or interrupting the current.
• Fuse Switch-Disconnectors:
  • A fuse switch-disconnector combines the functions of a fuse and a switch disconnector; it provides overcurrent protection like a fuse, and it also allows for manual disconnection of the circuit for isolation purposes.
• Reducer Fuses:
  • A reducer fuse is not a fuse itself, but rather an adapter that allows a physically smaller fuse to be installed into a fuse holder designed for a larger fuse size. A fuse reducer typically consists of a non-conductive, insulating body that encases the smaller fuse. This body is then designed with metal contacts or blades that match the dimensions of the larger fuse holder, allowing it to snap or bolt into place.
• Electrified Vehicle (EV) Fuses:
  • EV fuses are specialized safety devices designed to protect the high-voltage DC systems in electric vehicles, featuring much higher voltage ratings (500-1000Vdc), specialized materials to withstand extreme temperatures and vibrations, and fast-acting clearing mechanisms for high-power DC fault currents, unlike normal electrical fuses found in household circuits. Normal electrical fuses are for lower-voltage AC systems and have lower voltage ratings, standard materials, and designs suited for less extreme, more controlled environments.
• Circuit Breakers:
  • A circuit breaker is a mechanical electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overcurrent/overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after protective relays detect a fault.
  • By definition, a circuit breaker is an electrical safety device, a switch that automatically interrupts the current of an overloaded electric circuit, ground faults, or short circuits.
• Disconnectors: 
  • It is an Automatic switching device that offers specific isolating distance on the basis of specific requirements.
  • Disconnectors (also known as Isolators) are devices which are generally operated off-load to provide isolation of main plant items for maintenance, or to isolate faulted equipment from other live equipment.
• Contactors: 
  • It works like a high-current switching system but at higher voltage rates. Contactors can however not be utilized as disconnecting switches. They are employed in the 30KV to 100KV range.
  • A Contactor is a special type of relay used for switching an electrical circuit on or off.
  • It is an electrical device that is widely used for switching circuits on and off. As such, electrical contactors form a subcategory of electromagnetic switches known as relays. A relay is an electrically operated switching device that uses an electromagnetic coil to open and close a set of contacts.
• MCB (Miniature Circuit Breakers): 
  • They are employed in domestic households to safeguard against overload. Rated current is max. 100 A.
  • It is an electrical switch that automatically switches off the electrical circuit during an abnormal condition of the network such as an overload condition as well as a faulty condition. Nowadays we use an MCB in a low-voltage electrical network instead of a fuse.
  • Circuit breakers have a tripping relay mechanism, while an MCB has a tripping release mechanism. Circuit breakers have a high rupturing capacity, but the MCB has a low rupturing capacity. Circuit breakers are used in High Voltage systems, while MCBs are used in Low Voltage systems.
• MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breakers): 
  • Ii incorporates an insulating material in the form of molded casing within the circuit breaker. Rated current is up to 2,500 A.
  • An MCCB has a higher interrupting capacity, meaning it can handle larger loads than a conventional breaker. Generally, a standard breaker is used for residential and light commercial applications, while an MCCB is suitable for industrial and heavy commercial applications.
• PTCB eFuse Circuit Breaker:
  • An Electronic eFuse Circuit Breaker (PTCB) is an electronic micro fuse for DIN rail protecting electronically nominal currents below 1A to facilitate the clear detection of faults and supports precise fault localization and fast recovery. Response times are shorter compared to conventional fuse protection and the exact current value can be adjusted at any time
• RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breakers): 
  • To safeguard against electrical shock arising out of indirect contact and includes the detection of residual current such as earth leakage.
  • It is a current sensing device, which can automatically measure and disconnect the circuit whenever a fault occurs in the connected circuit or the current exceeds the rated sensitivity.
• RCD (Residual Current Devices): 
  • It is a sensitive safety device that switches off the electricity within 10 to 50 milliseconds if there is an electrical fault. An RCD is is designed to protect against the risks of electrocution and fire caused by earth faults.
  • The difference between a circuit breaker and an RCD switch is the purpose of a circuit breaker is to protect the electrical systems and wiring in a home while the purpose of an RCD switch is to protect people from electrocution.
• RCBO (Residual Current Breakers with Over-Current): 
  • An RCBO can protect against electric shocks, residual currents, and earth faults. On the other hand, an RCBO can do what an RCD can do and protect a circuit from short circuits and overload. RCBOs are essentially a combination of MCB and RCCB.
  • An RCBO protects electrical equipment from two types of faults; residual current and over current. Residual current, or Earth leakage as it can sometimes be referred to, is when there is a break in the circuit that could be caused by faulty electrical wiring or if the wire is accidentally cut.
• Solid-State Circuit Breakers:
  • Solid-state device, electronic device in which electricity flows through solid semiconductor crystals (silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium) rather than through vacuum tubes.
  • The solid-state breaker concept replaces the traditional moving parts of an electromechanical circuit breaker with semiconductors and advanced software algorithms that control the power and can interrupt extreme currents faster than ever before.
• ACB (Air Circuit Breakers): 
  • An Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) uses air as the insulating medium.
  • An Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) is a circuit breaker for the purpose of protecting low voltage circuit, mainly for energizing and cutting off high current
• VCB (Vacuum Circuit Breakers): 
  • Vacuum is used as the means to protect circuit breakers.
  • A Circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in a vacuum medium. The operation of switching on and closing of current carrying contacts and the interrelated arc interruption takes place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called a vacuum interrupter.
• OCB (Oil Circuit Breakers): 
  • It uses a portion of oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.
  • A Circuit breaker which uses insulating oil as an arc quenching medium
• Hybrid Circuit Breakers:
  • Combines Air-insulated and SF6 Gas-insulated technologies.
• AIS (Air Insulated Switchgears):
  • Air is used for insulation in a metal-clad system
  • It is a secondary power distribution device and medium voltage switchgear that helps redistribute the power of a primary power distributor powered by a high voltage distribution transformer. AIS controls, protects and isolates electrical equipment in power transmission and distribution systems.
• GIS (Gas Insulated Switchgears): 
  • All working components assembled under SF6 (Sulfur Hexafluoride High-Voltage Switchgears) gas-tight casing.
  • It is a compact metal encapsulated switchgear consisting of high-voltage components such as circuit-breakers and disconnectors, which can be safely operated in confined spaces.
• Pad-mount Switchgears:
  • The pad-mount switchgear is made from the same modular switch and interrupter components as the vault switchgear. This means all components are sealed, submersible and protected, so you don’t have to worry about tracking, animal infestation, corrosion or the effects of condensation inside the enclosure.
• Ring Main Unit (RMU):
  • A ring Main Unit (RMU) is a Medium-Voltage, gas-insulated, fully sealed cabinet used to measure, connect, and integrate transformer protection functions with a fixed type breaker. Ring Main Units are safe, reliable, low-maintenance, and easy to replace switchgear.
  • A Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a factory assembled, metal enclosed set of switchgear used at the load connection points of a ring-type distribution network.
• Load Center – Panel Board – Switch Board – Distribution Cabinet – Distribution Box – Distribution Enclosure:
  • A Load Center is used in residential and light commercial applications to distribute electricity supplied by the utility company throughout the home or building to feed all the branch circuits. Each branch circuit is protected by the circuit breaker housed in the load center.  In the event of a short circuit or an overload on a branch circuit, the circuit breaker will cut the power before any potential property damage or personal injury can occur.
  • A Load Center provides similar functionality in a power distribution system as a Switchboard and a Panelboard. As far as UL and the NEC standards are concerned, there is no difference between a Panelboard and a Load Center. The term Panel Board is more used in commercial and industrial applications.
  • However, Panelboards are typically deeper than Load Centers and can accommodate both bolt-on circuit breakers as well as plug-in breakers, whereas a load center is limited to plug-in breakers.
  • Switchboards are often the typical choice for large commercial and industrial establishments. These Panelboards generally house circuit breakers that can manage and supply electricity for machines with high-voltage demands.
  • Panelboards are only accessible from the front (as mentioned above), but Switchboards allow rear access as well.
  • Distribution Cabinet is used as a general term for an enclosure that houses electrical distribution components. It can refer to enclosures containing Panelboards, Switchboards, or other distribution equipment.
  • In terms of use, distribution boxes are generally used for households (smaller enclosures), and distribution cabinets are mostly used for centralized power supply. Distribution boxes and cabinets are complete sets of equipment. Distribution boxes are low-voltage complete sets of equipment. Cabinets have both high and low voltages.
  • An enclosure or distribution enclosure in a general term for any type of protective housing for electrical distribution components. It’s essentially a cabinet or box designed to safeguard components from environmental factors, prevent electrical shock, and potentially shield against electromagnetic interference.

 

• Main Distribution Boards (MDB):
  • An MDB is a panel or enclosure that houses the fuses, circuit breakers and ground leakage protection units where the electrical energy, which is used to distribute electrical power to numerous individual circuits or consumer points, is taken in from the transformer or an upstream panel.
  • MDBs receive power from the utility source or generator and distribute it to various sub-circuits within the establishment.
  • The MDB is the primary source of power distribution in an electrical system.
• Sub-Distribution Boards (SDB):
  • Subsidiary from Main Distribution Board that distribute electricity to a selected section of a building.
  • A sub-distribution board or sub-board is usually a smaller breaker panel acting as a subsidiary to a larger Distribution Panel. This enables greater control and isolation of a subset of smaller circuits and breakers.
•  Final Distribution Boards (FDB):
  • Distribution Boards that received from the Sub-Distribution Boards and supply to the final switches that connect electrical devices and appliances.

 

 

• Substation:
  • A power station is where the power is generated. A substation is a critical part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system, where power is split apart, transformed, and distributed further into the grid.
  • Substations contain the specialist equipment that allows the voltage of electricity to be transformed (or ‘switched’). The voltage is stepped up or down through pieces of equipment called transformers, which sit within a substation’s site.
  • Substations typically include:
    • Transformers: The core components for voltage transformation.
    • Circuit Breakers: To isolate and protect equipment.
    • Switchgear: For controlling and protecting the flow of electricity.
    • Shunt Reactors (sometimes): Used to improve system stability.
    • Other equipment: Measuring instruments, control panels, etc.

 

• Transformers (Power Transformers, Distribution Transformers, Traction Transformers, HVDC Converters, Solid State Transformers (SST), Rectifier Transformers):
  • A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another, or to multiple circuits. It can be classified into three types based on voltage change:
    • Step-up: Increases voltage and decreases current.
    • Step-down: Decreases voltage and increases current.
    • Isolation: Provides electrical isolation without changing the voltage.
  • Distribution vs. Power Transformers:
    • Power Transformers: These are used in high-voltage transmission networks for both stepping up and stepping down applications (e.g., 400 kV, 200 kV). They are generally rated above 200 MVA and are designed for maximum efficiency at or near full load.
    • Distribution Transformers: These are used in lower-voltage distribution networks to connect to end-users (e.g., 11 kV, 440V, 230V). They are generally rated less than 200 MVA and are designed for maximum efficiency at 60-70% of their rated load, as they operate at a load less than full load. They perform the final voltage transformation for household and commercial use.
  • Specialized Transformers:
    • Traction Transformers: These are special transformers used in railway systems to step down high-voltage AC power from the overhead catenary to the required voltage for the train’s traction system. They are typically medium-frequency transformers with ratings ranging from 25 kVA to 25 MVA.
    • HVDC Converter Transformers: These are used in HVDC stations. The transformer steps up the generated AC voltages to the required level before it is rectified into DC for long-distance transmission.
    • Solid State Transformers (SSTs): Also known as power electronic transformers (PETs) or intelligent universal transformers (IUTs), these are AC-AC converters that can replace conventional transformers. SSTs use power electronic converters in conjunction with a high-frequency transformer, which allows for smaller size and weight.
    • Rectifier Transformers: These transformers provide an AC output that is then converted into DC by a rectifier. Their design helps to ensure that the resulting DC is as smooth and stable as possible. They are used in industrial processes that require large amounts of DC power.

 

 

• Shunt Reactor:
  • Shunt reactors (SRs) are used in high-voltage energy transmission systems to control the voltage during load variations.
  • A shunt reactor is a device that absorbs reactive power, thereby stabilizing the voltage and increasing the energy efficiency of the system. It is the most compact device commonly used for reactive power compensation in long high-voltage transmission lines and in cable systems.
  • A shunt reactor can be directly connected to the power line or to a tertiary winding of a three-winding transformer. The shunt reactor can be permanently connected or switched via a circuit breaker. Unlike a power transformer, a shunt reactor typically has only one winding per phase.

 

 

 

• Motors, Generators and Drives:
  • Motor: Mechanical or electrical device that generates the rotational or linear force used to power a machine.
    • NEMA / IEC Motors: NEMA motors are commonly made with rolled steel or cast iron frames while IEC motors are commonly made with cast aluminum or cast iron frames.
      • North American NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) standards are crucial because they ensure that motors from different manufacturers are interchangeable and meet specific criteria for performance, safety, and physical dimensions.
    • Servo Motor: Self-contained electrical device, that rotate parts of a machine with high efficiency and with great precision. The output shaft of this motor can be moved to a particular angle, position and velocity that a regular motor does not have. It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a relatively sophisticated controller.
    • Shaft Grounded Motor: Electric motor that is equipped with a device to safely redirect harmful electrical currents away from its internal bearings. Without this protection, these currents can cause significant damage and lead to premature motor failure.
    • Traction Motor: A traction motor is an electric motor used to propel vehicles—such as electric cars, trains, and locomotives—by converting electrical energy into mechanical torque to turn the wheels. These robust, high-torque motors are typically mounted directly on the vehicle’s axle or truck, serving as the primary source of propulsion.
  • Generator: Does the opposite of this, converting mechanical energy into electricity. It does not create electricity; rather, it forces the movement of existing electric charges (electrons) in a conductor to produce an electric current.
  • Drive: (also often referred to as an electric controller) is the electronic device that harnesses and controls the electrical energy sent to the motor.
    • By positioning a drive between the electrical supply and the motor, power is fed into the drive, and the drive then controls and regulates the power that is fed into the motor. This allows control of speed, direction, acceleration, deceleration, torque and, in some applications, position of the motor shaft.

 

 

• UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply):
  • An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time when the primary power source is lost. UPS devices also provide protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that “kicks in” when the device senses a loss of power from the primary source. UPS is used to protect critical loads from utility-supplied power problems, including spikes, brownouts, fluctuations and power outages, all using a dedicated battery.

 

 

• Excitation and Blending Systems:
  • Excitation and blending systems are specialized, often automated, electrical and industrial control systems crucial for energy generation and chemical processing.
    • Excitation Systems provide regulated direct current (DC) to the field windings of a generator’s rotor, enabling the creation of a magnetic field required to produce electricity.
    • Blending Systems are industrial processes (often automated by companies like ABB) used for mixing raw materials, such as liquids or powders, to create a consistent, homogeneous finished product.

 

 

• Extra Low-Voltage (ELV):
  • Extra-Low Voltage (ELV) is defined as a voltage of 50V or less (AC RMS), or 120V or less (ripple-free DC).
• Low-Voltage (LV):
  • The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) defines Low Voltage (LV) for supply systems as voltage in the range 50–1000 V AC or 120–1500 V DC.
• Medium-Voltage (MV):
  • Medium Voltage (MV) is a voltage class that typically falls between low voltage and high voltage, with a common range being from 1 kV to 35 kV. In some contexts, this range can extend higher, up to 69 kV.
• High-Voltage (HV):
  • The International Electrotechnical Commission define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500 V for direct current.
• Super High-Voltage or Extra High-Voltage (EHV): 
  • Super High-Voltage or Extra High-Voltage (EHV) is the voltage class used for long-distance bulk power transmission. The range for EHV systems is typically from 230 kV to 800 kV.
• Ultra High-Voltage (UHV): 
  • Ultra High-Voltage (UHV) is the highest voltage class used in electrical transmission, defined as a voltage of 1000 kV or greater.

 

 

• ATEX and IEC Ex: 
  • ATEX zones are defined areas where an explosive atmosphere, created by flammable gases, vapors, mists, or dusts, can pose a risk of explosion. Equipment used in these environments must be certified to meet ATEX safety requirements.
  • The term ATEX is from the French Atmosphères Explosibles, referring to a European directive that sets safety requirements for such environments. Zones are classified (0, 1, 2 for gases/vapors and 20, 21, 22 for dusts) based on the likelihood of an explosive atmosphere being present, with lower numbers indicating a higher risk.
    • Gas/Vapor Zones (Zones 0, 1, 2)
      • Zone 0: A high-risk area where an explosive atmosphere is present continuously, or for long periods or frequently.
      • Zone 1: A moderate-risk area where an explosive atmosphere is likely to occur occasionally during normal operation.
      • Zone 2: A low-risk area where an explosive atmosphere is unlikely to occur in normal operation, and if it does, it will only be for a short period.
    • Dust Zones (Zones 20, 21, 22)
      • Zone 20: A high-risk area where combustible dust is present continuously, over long periods, or frequently.
      • Zone 21: A moderate-risk area where combustible dust may form occasionally during normal operation.
      • Zone 22: A low-risk area where combustible dust does not usually occur in normal operation, or only rarely and for a short time.
  • The ATEX Directive from the European Union (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2014/34/oj/eng) covers equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres.
  • While ATEX and IEC Ex certifications are very similar in their technical requirements, the main difference is geographical acceptance:
    • ATEX is a mandatory requirement in Europe.
    • IEC Ex is an international scheme that is accepted across several countries globally.

 

 

• Electromagnetic Flowmeter Calibration Rig: 
  • An electromagnetic flowmeter (or magmeter) is a volumetric flow sensor that measures the velocity of conductive liquids, slurries, and acids/caustics as they pass through a pipe. Utilizing Faraday’s law of induction, it generates a magnetic field and measures induced voltage, offering high accuracy (±0.5%), no pressure loss, and no moving parts.
  • A calibration rig is a specialized, high-precision test apparatus used to verify and adjust the accuracy of measuring instruments—such as flow meters, pressure gauges, or load cells—by comparing them against a known, traceable, and more accurate standard.
  • An electromagnetic flowmeter calibration rig is a precision industrial system used to verify and adjust the accuracy of magnetic flowmeters by comparing their readings against a known, traceable standard. It works by pumping a conductive fluid (usually water) through the meter at controlled rates. 

 

 

• Fundamental Units of Electricity:
  • Ampere – Amp (A):
    • Amperes measure the flow of electrical current (charge) through a circuit. Ampere (A) is the unit of measure for the rate of electron flow, or current, in an electrical conductor.
      • One ampere is defined as one coulomb of electric charge moving past a point in one second. The ampere is named after the French physicist André-Marie Ampère, who made significant contributions to the study of electromagnetism.
      • Milliampere (mA) is a unit of electric current equal to one-thousandth of an ampere (1mA=10−3A). The prefix “milli” signifies 10−3 in the metric system. This unit is commonly used to measure small currents in electronic circuits and consumer devices.
    • Volts measure the force or potential difference that drives the flow of electrons through a circuit.
      • Kilovolt (kV) is a unit of potential difference equal to 1,000 volts.
    • Watts measure the rate of energy consumption or generation, also known as power.
  • Power vs. Energy: how electricity is measured and billed.
    • Power (measured in kW, MW, GW, TW): Rate at which energy is used or generated at a given moment.
    • Energy (measured in kWh, MWh, GWh, TWh): Total amount of power consumed or generated over a period of time (i.e., Power x Time).
  • Real Power Units: actual power that performs work.
    • Kilowatt (KW):
      • A kilowatt is simply a measure of how much power an electric appliance consumes—it’s 1,000 watts to be exact. You can quickly convert watts (W) to kilowatts (kW) by dividing your wattage by 1,000: 1,000W 1,000 = 1 kW.
    • Megawatt (MW):
      • One megawatt equals one million watts or 1,000 kilowatts, roughly enough electricity for the instantaneous demand of 750 homes at once.
    • Gigawatt (GW):
      • A gigawatt (GW) is a unit of power, and it is equal to one billion watts.
      • According to the Department of Energy, generating one GW of power takes over three million solar panels or 310 utility-scale wind turbines
    • Terawatt (TW):
      • One terawatt is equal to one trillion watts (1,000,000,000,000 watts). The main use of terawatts is found in the electric power industry, particularly for measuring very large-scale power generation or consumption.
      • According to the United States Energy Information Administration, America is one of the largest electricity consumers in the world, using about 4,146.2 terawatt-hours (TWh) of energy per year.
  • Apparent Power Units: measures the total power in a circuit, including power that does not perform useful work.
    • Kilovolt-Amperes (kVA):
      • Kilovolt-Amperes (kVA) stands for Kilo-volt-amperes, a term used for the rating of an electrical circuit. A kVA is a unit of apparent power, which is the product of the circuit’s maximum voltage and current rating.
      • The difference between real power (kW) and apparent power (kVA) is crucial. Real power (kW) is the actual power that performs work, while apparent power (kVA) is the total power delivered to a circuit, including the real power and the reactive power (kVAR) that doesn’t do useful work. The relationship between them is defined by the power factor. Since the power factor is typically less than 1, the kVA value will always be higher than the kW value.
    • Megavolt-Amperes (MVA):
      • Megavolt-Amperes (MVA) is a unit used to measure the apparent power in a circuit, primarily for very large electrical systems like power plants and substations. It’s a product of the voltage and current in a circuit.
      • 1 MVA is equivalent to 1,000 kVA, or 1,000,000 volt-amperes.
  • Specialized Power Units: used specifically for renewable energy, especially solar.
    • KiloWatt ‘peak’ (KWp):
      • kWp stands for kilowatt ‘peak’ power output of a system. It is most commonly applied to solar arrays. For example, a solar panel with a peak power of 3kWp which is working at its maximum capacity for one hour will produce 3kWh. kWp (kilowatt peak) is the total kw rating of the system, the theoretical ‘peak’ output of the system. e.g. If the system has 4 x 270 watt panels, then it is 4 x 0.27kWp = 1.08kWp.
      • The Wp of each panel will allow you to calculate the surface area needed to reach it. 1 kWp corresponds theoretically to 1,000 kWh per year.

 

 

• F-Gases: 
  • F stands for fluorinated, and F-Gas is the term used to describe a particular family of fluorinated gases which are widely used as refrigerants in air conditioning and commercial refrigeration systems (as well as in many essential appliances such as fire extinguishers and medical inhalers)
  • Fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases) are a family of gases containing fluorine. They are powerful greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming. They are stronger than naturally occurring greenhouse gases and their use is regulated.
• SF6: 
  • Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆) is a synthetic fluorinated compound with an extremely stable molecular structure. Because of its unique dielectric properties, electric utilities rely heavily on SF₆ in electric power systems for voltage electrical insulation, current interruption, and arc quenching in the transmission and distribution of electricity. Yet, it is also the most potent greenhouse gas known to-date. Over a 100-year period, SF₆ is 23,500 times more effective at trapping infrared radiation than an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂). SF₆ is also a very stable chemical, with an atmospheric lifetime of 3,200 years. As the gas is emitted, it accumulates in the atmosphere in an essentially un-degraded state for many centuries. Thus, a relatively small amount of SF₆ can have a significant impact on global climate change.
  • Global annual emissions are 8,100 tonnes, equivalent to the CO2 emissions of 100m cars.
  • It is expected to grow by 75% by 2030. 80% of all SF6 is used in gas insulated switchgear, a vital component of the grid (isolating and protecting different sections), so it’s an energy sector issue.